A multidimensional analysis of children’s connection with nature: Associations with age, gender, and frequency of nature contact

Abstract

Connection with nature (CN) is increasingly recognised as a key construct in environmental education and a predictor of pro-environmental behaviour. However, empirical evidence on agerelated patterns in CN during childhood and its associations with sociodemographic and contextual factors remains inconsistent. This study examines the affective, behavioural, and cognitive dimensions of CN in a sample of 1375 children aged 6–11 years from C´ordoba, Spain. A validated multidimensional instrument was administered, and data were analysed using betabinomial Generalised Linear Mixed Models, with school-level random intercepts to account for the clustering of pupils within schools. Age-related patterns were examined using spline-based modelling to capture potential non-linear associations. Findings revealed dimension-specific patterns. Affective CN was lower among older children, whereas behavioural CN was higher in early and middle childhood, showing only a slight attenuation at the oldest ages in spline-based estimates. Cognitive CN showed a positive overall age-related association, particularly among boys in the oldest age group. Because the design was cross-sectional, these findings describe agerelated differences within the sample rather than intra-individual change over time. Gender differences were slight in the affective and behavioural components. Frequent contact with nature was strongly and consistently associated with overall, affective and behavioural CN, with a weaker association for the cognitive dimension. No robust differences were found between urban–rural places of residence. These results support a multidimensional understanding of CN. The findings have implications for environmental education policy and practice, suggesting the need for sustained and structured nature-based learning opportunities during middle childhood.