Empleo de un monitor de Doppler esofágico para la evaluación del estado hemodinámico durante la anestesia en perros
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Sández Cordero, Ignacio
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Rioja García, Eva
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Abstract
Antecedentes y objetivos
La evaluación de la función ventricular izquierda es fundamental para conocer el funcionamiento del sistema cardiovascular durante la anestesia, y para la monitorización de las intervenciones terapéuticas instauradas. Las técnicas invasivas, como el catéter de Swan-Ganz, aunque son muy precisas, presentan limitaciones por su coste y, sobre todo, por el riesgo de complicaciones, lo que favorece el uso de métodos mínimamente invasivos como el Doppler esofágico (DE). Las principales variables obtenidas mediante este método son la velocidad pico o velocidad máxima de la sangre en aorta (VP); la integral velocidad-tiempo o distancia sistólica (VTi o DS), parámetro subrogado del volumen sistólico; la distancia minuto (DM), que es el producto de la DS por la frecuencia cardiaca, y es un parámetro subrogado del gasto cardiaco; y la aceleración media de la sangre en aorta (AM), que se emplea para evaluar la contractilidad miocárdica.
El objetivo de esta tesis es evaluar la utilidad de la monitorización mediante Doppler esofágico y de las variables derivadas de este (VP, DS, DM y AM) para la optimización del estado hemodinámico durante la anestesia general en perros. De manera más específica, se analiza su capacidad para monitorizar la precarga, la poscarga y la contractilidad cardíaca.
Métodos
En total se emplearon 97 perros, incluidos en 4 estudios prospectivos. Todos los perros estaban bajo anestesia general, con un protocolo de anestesia similar: premedicación con dexmedetomidina y metadona, inducción con propofol o alfaxalona, mantenimiento con isoflurano y ventilados mecánicamente. Para la monitorización de las variables hemodinámicas (VP, DS, DM y AM) se empleó un monitor de Doppler esofágico (CardioQ-ODM) con una sonda de 5 mm introducida hasta el tercio distal del esófago. En el primer estudio se compararon los valores de VP y de DS o VTi medidos con DE y con ecocardiografía transtorácica (ETT) para valorar la concordancia de los métodos de monitorización. En el segundo estudio se evaluaron los cambios en la VP, DS y la AM tras la administración de un fármaco inotrópico positivo (pimobendan) que mejora la contractilidad. Para el tercer estudio se empleó el monitor del DE para evaluar
los cambios en poscarga tras la administración de un fármaco vasodilatador periférico (labetalol), midiendo la VP, DS y AM, y una variable derivada de la DS que fue la elastancia arterial (Ea). En el último estudio se empleó el DE para valorar el estado de la precarga-dependencia en anestesia, midiendo la variabilidad de la DS (VDS) y de la VP (VVP), antes y después de la administración de un bolo de fluidos, y empleando la DS como subrogado del volumen sistólico.
Se aplicaron métodos estadísticos paramétricos y no paramétricos según la naturaleza de los datos, expresados como media ± desviación estándar o mediana con rangos intercuartílicos; se evaluó la normalidad mediante Shapiro-Wilk y la homocedasticidad con Levene. Para las comparaciones se utilizaron t-test, Mann-Whitney, pruebas de Chi-cuadrado o Fisher, así como t-test pareados o Wilcoxon según correspondiera. Los efectos del tiempo, los tratamientos y la interacción de ambos se analizaron mediante modelos de efectos mixtos y ANOVA bidireccional con pruebas post hoc. El tamaño muestral se calculó en función de las variables principales, con α = 0,05 y β = 0,2, y se aplicaron correlaciones de Pearson, análisis de Bland-Altman y curvas ROC para determinar capacidad predictiva. Todos los análisis se realizaron con R, SPSS y JMP Pro, y las visualizaciones con GraphPad Prism.
Resultados
La comparación entre ETT y DE en 14 perros mostró una fuerte correlación para la VP (r = 0,9; p < 0,001) y para la DS (r = 0,86; p < 0,001). Las diferencias medias fueron pequeñas (10,8 cm/s para VP y 0,19 cm para DS), y, considerando una variabilidad del 20%, ambos métodos coincidieron en el 71% de las mediciones de VP y en el 85% de las de DS, lo que indica una buena concordancia entre ambos métodos.
El empleo de pimobendan produjo incrementos significativos en la DS (p = 0,019), la VP (p < 0,0001) y la AM (p < 0,0001) respecto al placebo, mientras que la DM no mostró diferencias relevantes entre grupos (p = 0,65).
El empleo del labetalol aumento de forma significativa la PV y la DS (40,5% y 71,2%, respectivamente) frente a cambios mínimos en el grupo Control (1,1% y 5,3%). Tanto la PV, como la DS y la Ea mostraron variaciones dependientes del tiempo y del tratamiento,
y la contractilidad miocárdica (medida mediante la MA) no presentó cambios significativos.
En los perros clasificados como respondedores a fluidos, la administración de un bolo de coloides de 3 mL/kg produjo un incremento significativo de la DS (de 12 [11–18] cm a 14 [13–22] cm) y de la VP (de 82 [68–88] cm/s a 89 [80–95] cm/s), acompañado de una reducción de la VDS (de 18% [13–22] a 14% [10–17]) y de la VVP (de 14% [10–18] a 10% [6–14]). El punto de corte más adecuado de la VPP para considerar a los animales respondedores fue del 9% (sensibilidad 88%, especificidad 73%) y para la VDS del 12% (sensibilidad 88%, especificidad 77%).
Conclusiones
El monitor de Doppler esofágico constituye una herramienta mínimamente invasiva que permite evaluar de forma continua parámetros derivados del flujo aórtico. Este dispositivo demostró ser capaz de valorar cambios en la contractilidad tras la administración de un inotrópico positivo (pimobendan), así como en la poscarga después del empleo de un vasodilatador (labetalol). Asimismo, permitió identificar la respuesta a fluidos mediante la evaluación del flujo sistólico tras pequeños bolos de coloides, y predecir con alta sensibilidad y especificidad la precarga-dependencia de los pacientes anestesiados. Estos hallazgos apoyan el valor del Doppler esofágico como una alternativa eficaz y práctica para optimizar la toma de decisiones clínicas en anestesia veterinaria.
Background and Objectives Assessment of left ventricular function is fundamental for understanding cardiovascular performance during anesthesia and for monitoring responses to therapeutic interventions. Although invasive techniques such as Swan–Ganz catheterization provide accurate hemodynamic data, their cost and risk of complications limit their routine use. Consequently, non-invasive methods like esophageal Doppler (ED) have become attractive alternatives. The ED provides parameters including peak aortic blood velocity (PV); the velocity–time integral (VTI) or stroke distance (SD), a surrogate for stroke volume; minute distance (MD), calculated as SD multiplied by heart rate and serving as a surrogate for cardiac output; and mean aortic blood acceleration (MA), an indicator of myocardial contractility. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the utility of esophageal Doppler monitoring and the derived variables (VP, DS, DM, and AM) for optimizing hemodynamic status during general anesthesia in dogs. More specifically, its capacity to monitor preload, afterload, and cardiac contractility was analyzed. Methods A total of 97 dogs were enrolled across four prospective studies. All dogs were managed under general anesthesia following a standardized protocol that included premedication with dexmedetomidine and methadone, induction with propofol or alfaxalone, maintenance with isoflurane, and mechanical ventilation. Hemodynamic variables (PV, SD, MD, and MA) were measured using an esophageal Doppler monitor (CardioQ-ODM) equipped with a 4-mm probe positioned in the distal third of the esophagus. In the first study, PV and SD/VTI measured by ED were compared with transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) to evaluate agreement between the two monitoring methods. The second study assessed changes in PV, SD, and MA following administration of pimobendan, a positive inotropic agent. In the third study, the ED monitor was used to evaluate afterload changes after administration of the peripheral vasodilator labetalol, measuring PV, SD, MA, and a derived variable from SD, arterial elastance (Ea). Finally, the fourth study used ED to assess preload-dependence during anesthesia by evaluating SD variability (SDV) and PV variability (PVV) before and after a fluid bolus, with SD serving as a surrogate for stroke volume. Parametric and non-parametric statistical methods were applied according to data type and expressed as mean ± standard deviation or median with interquartile range. Normality was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test, and homoscedasticity with Levene’s test. Comparisons were performed with t-tests, Mann–Whitney tests, Chi-square, or Fisher’s exact tests, and paired t-tests or Wilcoxon tests when appropriate. Effects of time, treatment, and their interaction were analyzed using mixed-effects models or two-way ANOVA with post hoc testing. Sample size was calculated based on primary variables, with α = 0.05 and β = 0.2. Pearson correlations, Bland–Altman analyses, and ROC curves were used to evaluate predictive capacity. Statistical analyses were conducted using R, SPSS, and JMP Pro, with graphical representations generated in GraphPad Prism. Results Comparison between TTE and ED in 14 dogs demonstrated a strong correlation for PV (r = 0.90; p < 0.001) and SD (r = 0.86; p < 0.001). Mean differences were minimal (10.8 cm/s for PV and 0.19 cm for SD), and when considering a 20% variability allowed, both methods agreed in 71% of PV measurements and 85% of SD measurements, indicating good concordance between the two methods. Pimobendan administration resulted in significant increases in SD (p = 0.019), PV (p < 0.0001), and MA (p < 0.0001) compared to placebo, whereas MD did not differ significantly between groups (p = 0.65). Labetalol administration resulted in significant increases in PV and SD (40.5% and 71.2%, respectively), compared with minimal changes in the control group (1.1% and 5.3%). PV, SD, and Ea exhibited time- and treatment-dependent variations, whereas myocardial contractility, assessed by MA, remained unchanged. In fluid responders, a 3 mL/kg colloid bolus significantly increased SD (from 12 [11–18] cm to 14 [13–22] cm) and PV (from 82 [68–88] cm/s to 89 [80–95] cm/s), accompanied by reductions in SDV (from 18% [13–22] to 14% [10–17]) and PVV (from 14% [10–18] to 10% [6–14]). The optimal cutoff values to identify responders were 9% for PVV (sensitivity 88%, specificity 73%) and 12% for SDV (sensitivity 88%, specificity 77%). Conclusions The esophageal Doppler monitor is a minimally invasive tool that allows continuous assessment of aortic flow–derived parameters. It detected changes in myocardial contractility following administration of the positive inotrope (pimobendan) and identified afterload alterations after vasodilator (labetalol) administration. The monitor also assessed fluid responsiveness by tracking stroke flow after small colloid boluses and accurately predicted preload dependence in anesthetized dogs. These results highlight the utility of esophageal Doppler as a practical and effective tool for guiding clinical decision-making in veterinary anesthesia.
Background and Objectives Assessment of left ventricular function is fundamental for understanding cardiovascular performance during anesthesia and for monitoring responses to therapeutic interventions. Although invasive techniques such as Swan–Ganz catheterization provide accurate hemodynamic data, their cost and risk of complications limit their routine use. Consequently, non-invasive methods like esophageal Doppler (ED) have become attractive alternatives. The ED provides parameters including peak aortic blood velocity (PV); the velocity–time integral (VTI) or stroke distance (SD), a surrogate for stroke volume; minute distance (MD), calculated as SD multiplied by heart rate and serving as a surrogate for cardiac output; and mean aortic blood acceleration (MA), an indicator of myocardial contractility. The aim of this thesis is to evaluate the utility of esophageal Doppler monitoring and the derived variables (VP, DS, DM, and AM) for optimizing hemodynamic status during general anesthesia in dogs. More specifically, its capacity to monitor preload, afterload, and cardiac contractility was analyzed. Methods A total of 97 dogs were enrolled across four prospective studies. All dogs were managed under general anesthesia following a standardized protocol that included premedication with dexmedetomidine and methadone, induction with propofol or alfaxalone, maintenance with isoflurane, and mechanical ventilation. Hemodynamic variables (PV, SD, MD, and MA) were measured using an esophageal Doppler monitor (CardioQ-ODM) equipped with a 4-mm probe positioned in the distal third of the esophagus. In the first study, PV and SD/VTI measured by ED were compared with transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) to evaluate agreement between the two monitoring methods. The second study assessed changes in PV, SD, and MA following administration of pimobendan, a positive inotropic agent. In the third study, the ED monitor was used to evaluate afterload changes after administration of the peripheral vasodilator labetalol, measuring PV, SD, MA, and a derived variable from SD, arterial elastance (Ea). Finally, the fourth study used ED to assess preload-dependence during anesthesia by evaluating SD variability (SDV) and PV variability (PVV) before and after a fluid bolus, with SD serving as a surrogate for stroke volume. Parametric and non-parametric statistical methods were applied according to data type and expressed as mean ± standard deviation or median with interquartile range. Normality was assessed using the Shapiro–Wilk test, and homoscedasticity with Levene’s test. Comparisons were performed with t-tests, Mann–Whitney tests, Chi-square, or Fisher’s exact tests, and paired t-tests or Wilcoxon tests when appropriate. Effects of time, treatment, and their interaction were analyzed using mixed-effects models or two-way ANOVA with post hoc testing. Sample size was calculated based on primary variables, with α = 0.05 and β = 0.2. Pearson correlations, Bland–Altman analyses, and ROC curves were used to evaluate predictive capacity. Statistical analyses were conducted using R, SPSS, and JMP Pro, with graphical representations generated in GraphPad Prism. Results Comparison between TTE and ED in 14 dogs demonstrated a strong correlation for PV (r = 0.90; p < 0.001) and SD (r = 0.86; p < 0.001). Mean differences were minimal (10.8 cm/s for PV and 0.19 cm for SD), and when considering a 20% variability allowed, both methods agreed in 71% of PV measurements and 85% of SD measurements, indicating good concordance between the two methods. Pimobendan administration resulted in significant increases in SD (p = 0.019), PV (p < 0.0001), and MA (p < 0.0001) compared to placebo, whereas MD did not differ significantly between groups (p = 0.65). Labetalol administration resulted in significant increases in PV and SD (40.5% and 71.2%, respectively), compared with minimal changes in the control group (1.1% and 5.3%). PV, SD, and Ea exhibited time- and treatment-dependent variations, whereas myocardial contractility, assessed by MA, remained unchanged. In fluid responders, a 3 mL/kg colloid bolus significantly increased SD (from 12 [11–18] cm to 14 [13–22] cm) and PV (from 82 [68–88] cm/s to 89 [80–95] cm/s), accompanied by reductions in SDV (from 18% [13–22] to 14% [10–17]) and PVV (from 14% [10–18] to 10% [6–14]). The optimal cutoff values to identify responders were 9% for PVV (sensitivity 88%, specificity 73%) and 12% for SDV (sensitivity 88%, specificity 77%). Conclusions The esophageal Doppler monitor is a minimally invasive tool that allows continuous assessment of aortic flow–derived parameters. It detected changes in myocardial contractility following administration of the positive inotrope (pimobendan) and identified afterload alterations after vasodilator (labetalol) administration. The monitor also assessed fluid responsiveness by tracking stroke flow after small colloid boluses and accurately predicted preload dependence in anesthetized dogs. These results highlight the utility of esophageal Doppler as a practical and effective tool for guiding clinical decision-making in veterinary anesthesia.
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“Tesis inédita presentada en la Universidad Europea de Madrid. Escuela de Doctorado e Investigación. Programa de Doctorado en Biomedicina y Ciencias de la Salud”
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Bibliographic reference
Sández Cordero, I. (2026). Empleo de un monitor de Doppler esofágico para la evaluación del estado hemodinámico durante la anestesia en perros. [Tesis doctoral, Universidad Europea de Madrid]. ABACUS Repositorio de Producción Científica. https://hdl.handle.net/11268/16974






